A Study of Social Patterns of Citizens’ Attitudes toward Working Children in the City of Mashhad

Introduction
Child labor is a critical urban social issue in Mashhad, the second-largest metropolis in Iran. According to official statistics, 1/187 working children were identified in Mashhad between 2020 and 2022, of whom 70% were foreign nationals (primarily Afghan migrants) and 30% were Iranian citizens. While extensive research has examined the economic and family factors driving child labor, little attention has been paid to citizens' attitudes toward this phenomenon. Public attitudes are important because they shape social responses, influence policy-making, and can either reproduce or reduce the harms associated with child labor. Drawing on symbolic interactionism (Blumer), social stratification theory (Weber, Bourdieu), and stigma theory (Goffman), this study argues that attitudes toward working children are formed at the intersection of socioeconomic position, residential context, age, and daily urban interactions. The study aims to: (1) describe citizens' attitudes across three dimensions—empathetic, hostile, and indifferent; and (2) examine how these attitudes differ by gender, age, residential area, and socioeconomic status.
Methodology
This study adopts a positivist paradigm and employs a quantitative, descriptive-analytical survey design. The statistical population consisted of all citizens aged 18 years and older in Mashhad (approximately 3/300/000 according to the 2016 census). Using Cochran's formula and multistage probability cluster sampling, 384 respondents were selected. Data were collected utilizing a researcher-made questionnaire validated by expert review and pretesting. Reliability was confirmed with Cronbach's alpha exceeding 0.7 for all scales. The questionnaire measured: (1) empathetic attitude (13 items), (2) hostile attitude (13 items), (3) indifferent attitude (9 items), and (4) socioeconomic status (6 items covering education, occupation, and income). All items used a 5-point Likert scale. The theoretical range for each attitude dimension was 11 to 55, with a hypothetical mean of 33. Data analysis was carried out in SPSS version 22. Independent t-tests and one-way ANOVA with Tukey's post hoc tests were employed to compare group means.
Findings
The sample consisted of 62/8% male and 37/2% female respondents, with a mean age of 36/5 years. In terms of socioeconomic status (SES), 19/9% were low SES, 64/3% middle SES, and 15/8% high SES. Descriptive findings exhibited that the mean empathetic attitude was 35/80 (above the hypothetical mean of 33), mean hostile attitude was 32/42 (below the mean), and mean indifferent attitude was 30/45 (below the mean). Thus, citizens hold above-average empathy but below-average hostility and indifference.
Hypothesis testing revealed the following:
Gender: No significant differences were found between men and women in empathetic (p = 0/83), hostile (p = 0/12), or indifferent (p = 0/18) attitudes
Age: No significant age differences were observed for empathetic attitude (p = 0/247). However, significant differences were detected for hostile attitude (F = 3/98, p = 0/019) and indifferent attitude (F = 7/06, p = 0/001)/ The 33–47 age group showed the highest hostile attitude, while the 18–32 age group demonstrated the highest indifferent attitude.
Residential area: Significant differences were found for empathetic attitude (F = 13/00, p < 0/01) and indifferent attitude (F = 4/40, p = 0/013), but not for hostile attitude/ Residents of upper-class neighborhoods were more empathetic, while residents of lower-class neighborhoods were more indifferent.
Socioeconomic status: Analysis indicated significant differences across all three dimensions: empathetic (F = 18/08, p < 0/01), hostile (F = 3/11, p = 0/046), and indifferent (F = 5/45, p = 0/005). Lower SES individuals exhibited the highest empathetic attitude, while higher SES individuals showed higher hostile and indifferent attitudes.
 
Conclusion
The findings indicate that citizens of Mashhad hold a complex pattern of attitudes toward working children, characterized by above-average empathy combined with moderate levels of indifference and low hostility. Gender does not influence these attitudes, suggesting that daily urban encounters with working children transcend traditional gender roles. Age influences hostile and indifferent attitudes but not empathy, possibly reflecting generational differences in desensitization and perceptions of social order. Residential area and socioeconomic status are the most powerful predictors of attitudes: upper-class residents and higher SES individuals exhibit more empathy, while lower-class residents and lower SES individuals show more indifference—except that lower SES individuals, paradoxically, show the highest empathy. This paradox suggests that shared economic hardship may foster solidarity with vulnerable groups. The normalization of child labor through daily proximity in lower-class neighborhoods may, however, reduce social sensitivity over time. From a theoretical perspective, these findings support an integrated model combining symbolic interactionism (meaning-making through daily encounters), social stratification (SES shaping perceptions of victims), and stigma theory (labeling processes). Practically, the results highlight the need for spatially targeted awareness campaigns, school-based educational programs on children's rights, and structural poverty-alleviation measures to address the root causes of child labor in Mashhad.